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Beyond Mapping
Compilation Series
by Joseph K. Berry
…Beyond Mapping columns appearing in GeoWorld (formally GIS World) magazine
from March
1989 through December 2013 (www.innovativegis.com/basis/BeyondMappingSeries)
Most
The real estate axiom of “location, location,
location” has moved to the forefront of understanding and interacting with our
world. Prior to the digital map, spatial
information was constrained to the “precise placement of physical features”
primarily for navigation, inventory and recordkeeping. Today, the historical objective of “Where is What” has been expanded to “Why, So What and What If”
investigations of the spatial patterns and relationships driving our physical,
ecological, economic, social and political systems. Geotechnology (RS, GIS, GPS)
has ushered in an bold new era of mapped data visualization, interactive
geo-query and quantitative analysis of mapped data supporting spatial
communication, reasoning and dialog— “thinking with maps.”
The nearly 1000 pages and more than 750 figures in
the Beyond Mapping Compilation Series provides a comprehensive and longitudinal
perspective of the underlying concepts, considerations, issues and evolutionary
development of modern geotechnology.
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The columns forming the Beyond Mapping Compilation Series are organized into Four
Online/Electronic/Hardcopy Books
each
with Introduction, Ten Topics, Epilog and Further Readings …also with links
to online support materials including additional Online Readings, Color
Graphics files, Instructor
Materials and Software for “hands-on” exercises that are cross-referenced to
the topics in the series |
Beyond Mapping Book IV — GIS Modeling:
Applying Map Analysis Tools and Techniques is an online/electronic book organizing the columns
from 2007 to 2013 that extends
earlier discussions of map analysis concepts, procedures, approaches,
applications and issues affecting contemporary relevance and future directions
of geotechnology.
Beyond Mapping Book III — Map Analysis: Understanding Spatial Patterns and Relationships is an online/hardcopy book organizing
the columns from 1996 to 2007 that
develops a structured view of the important concepts, considerations and
procedures involved in grid-based map analysis.
Beyond Mapping Book II — Spatial Reasoning for Effective GIS is an online/hardcopy book organizing the columns
from 1993 to 1996 that explores
the basic concepts of map analysis and discusses the fundamental elements of
GIS that make it different from traditional map structure, content, processing
and use while encouraging the reader to extend the historic role of maps
telling us “Where is What?” to “So What?”
Beyond Mapping Book I — Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS is an online/hardcopy book
organizing the columns from 1989 to 1993 that introduces the concepts of
geographic information systems (
Navigation within the
tsunami of information in the Series is aided by five separate organizational
listings of the individual Beyond Mapping columns—
Chronological Listing of the nearly 300 individual Beyond Mapping columns (.html and .pdf)
Application Listing that organizes the columns by application areas (.html and .pdf)
Operations Listing that organizes the columns by topic/theme
discussed (.html and .pdf)
Interactive Listing that can be searched/sorted by any word or
phrase, topic, theme and application area (Word .doc)
Combined Index of keywords and phrases covering all four books (.html…in progress; planned for Fall 2014)
______________________________________________
Permission to use portions of the Beyond Mapping
Compilation Series collection of columns for educational and non-commercial
purposes is granted
Beyond Mapping Compilation Series
(Book IV)
GIS Modeling:
Applying Map Analysis
Tools and Techniques
|
This
compilation extends earlier discussions of map analysis concepts, procedures,
approaches, applications and issues affecting contemporary relevance and
future potential. Geotechnology
(the spatial triad of remote sensing (RS), GIS and GPS) has “taken to the
net” and become routine in most workplaces and general users’ computers, tablets
and mobile devices. As a ubiquitous “technological tool,” it has become an
indispensible part of daily life and interwoven into the fabric of modern
society. Geotechnology’s
expression as an “analytical tool” is poised for a similar run and promises
to forever change how people perceive geographic space and its intersection
with numeric space to understand spatial relationships without the
simplifying assumptions previously found in science and practice before the
digital map. This transformative book is sure to alter experienced and
novice readers’ perceptions and paradigms of “what a map is (and isn’t)” and
how mapped data can be analyzed for startling new revelations of the world
around us. |
_________________________________________________________________________
This online electronic book and print-ready version is
posted at…
http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/BeyondMappingSeries/BeyondMapping_IV/
…permission to use all materials for educational purposes is
granted.
________________________________________________
Book IV —
Table of Contents
Introduction Extending Basic GIS Concepts — Comparing paper and digital map
worlds identifies an entirely new beast that supports radically new mapping
approaches, perspectives and opportunities with all the rights, privileges and
responsibilities of traditional quantitative data analysis. This section explores the differences in
vector and raster data forms, their implications for resolving spatial detail,
and the rethinking of geo-referencing schema.
Topic 1 Extending Grid-based Data Concepts — Grid-based raster maps store a map
value at each location in a matrix to identify the characteristic/condition
occurring at that grid cell. This topic
describes how individual map layers are assembled into georegistered map
stacks, defining the continuous distribution of each map variable
for use in the quantitative analysis of mapped data (Spatial Analysis
and Spatial Statistics) that’s a direct extension of nonspatial
math/stat procedures.
Topic 2 Extending Effective Distance Procedures — Effective
distance considers intervening absolute and relative barriers in characterizing
movement through geographic space. This
topic describes the underlying concepts and basic approaches used to establish
variable-width buffers, travel-time surfaces and optimal path routing as well
as contiguity and narrowness measures.
Topic 3 Extending Terrain Analysis Procedures — Terrain analysis, one of the oldest applications
of grid-based map analysis, characterizes the relative steepness and
directional orientation of an elevation surface. This topic investigates additional techniques
for landscape segmentation, determining longitudinal and transverse slopes of
linear features, identifying upland ridges, and determining
uphill/downhill/across portions and line-of-sight connectivity within
roving windows.
Topic 4 Extending Spatial Statistics Procedures — Spatial Statistics relaxes the assumption that a “typical
value” (e.g., average) is evenly distributed over a project area to
characterize the continuous spatial distribution of field data, using such
information to assess relationships within and among various map layers. This topic establishes the underlying
concepts and procedures for developing spatial distributions, and then extends
traditional nonspatial techniques into the spatial realm, such as generating
maps of localized variations in Correlation and T-test.
Topic 5 Structuring GIS Modeling Approaches — Grid-based GIS Modeling, in
many respects, is an extended form of traditional mathematical modeling that
manipulates matrices representing the spatial distribution of map
variables. This topic examines the “map-ematical structure” for processing map layers,
data-handling approaches, concerns surrounding precision and accuracy, and the
similarities and differences among different types of GIS models.
Topic 6 Education Outside
Traditional Lines — GIS education has evolved significantly
during four decades, with an early focus on training GIS specialists needed for
transforming paper map information, procedures and mindsets into digital
forms. More recently, education has
broadened its focus to innovative solutions involving domain experts from a
multitude of disciplines and incorporating rapidly evolving technological
advances. This topic discusses the
different perspectives of “the trailing ‘S’ in GIS” (Systems, Specialist,
Science and Solutions), its impacts on GIS education and the probable increased emphasis on nontraditional GIS students in developing
“spatial-reasoning” skills across campus.
Topic 7 Spatial Data Mining in Geo-business — Maps historically had minimal
application in business operations, planning and decision making. However, with the advent of digital mapped
data analysis/modeling, a more thorough understanding of spatial patterns and
relationships are proving critical in successful marketing, financial,
logistical and managerial actions. This
topic links numerical and spatial distributions to uncover “unusual response” areas,
identifies areas having relative similarity and clustering tendencies, and
describes a Universal Database Key that promises to revolutionize database
technology.
Topic 8 GIS Modeling in Natural Resources — Maps and mapping have long been a
cornerstone of natural-resources management.
However, map analysis/modeling capabilities have extended the
traditional “where is what” spatial inventories to “why, so what and what if” understandings
of spatial interactions among critical factors that are radically changing
natural-resources research, policy formation, decision making and
operations. This topic examines the use
of Effective Distance to generate more realistic assessments of forest
access for harvesting and emergency response, and then extends the discussion
to how spatial technology promises to change the natural-resources paradigm.
Topic 9 Math/Stat Framework for Map Analysis — Map Analysis and GIS
Modeling are poised to radically change science, technology, engineering
and math (STEM) curricula at the K-12 and college levels by infusing spatial
reasoning and analysis into traditional classroom settings. This topic establishes a generalized
math/stat framework that directly extends current quantitative data-analysis
procedures into the spatial realm by considering maps as “spatially organized
data layers” (as opposed to graphical images) that have all the rights, privileges,
responsibilities and analytical potential of traditional nonspatial data.
Topic 10 Future Directions
and Trends — Geotechnology’s only consistent element
is its ability to change. In just four
decades, it has evolved from automated cartography to spatial database
technology to analytic engine operating with mapped data and software in the
cyber-cloud. This topic suggests a
probable future that dramatically alters perspectives of “what a map is and
isn’t” by expanding the flat 2-D (x,y) view of
geographic space to a 3-D (x,y,z) and 4-D (x,y,z,time) view by fundamentally changing the
300-plus-year-old Cartesian referencing system.
Epilog
The Continuing Promise of GIS Modeling —
Geotechnology
has great potential for good (and bad).
This topic discusses the good, the bad and the ugly sides of
geotechnology, with particular attention to enduring impacts on how people
perceive, process, promote and practice innovative ways to understand the
spatial patterns and relationships that impact all systems (physical, climatic,
biological, economic, political, social and cultural).
Beyond Mapping
Compilation Series
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Beyond Mapping Compilation Series
(Book III)
Map Analysis:
Understanding Spatial Patterns and Relationships
|
While
numerous books focus on Geographic Information Systems ( The
result is a book that engages the reader to “think spatially” and formulate
new and innovative solutions to complex spatial problems. Key to this process is a paradigm shift
that extends the traditional paper map perspective of “where is what” to the
modern perspective of “why and so what.”
Within this context, maps become data and map analysis becomes the
means to derive information about spatial patterns and relationships within
and among map layers. |
_________________________________________________________________________
This online electronic book and print-ready version is
posted at…
http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/BeyondMappingSeries/BeyondMapping_III/
…permission to use all materials for educational purposes is
granted.
________________________________________________
Book III
— Table of Contents
Introduction The GIS Evolution — As
Topic
1 Data Structure Implications —
Topic
2 Fundamental Map Analysis
Approaches —
Map Analysis exploits the digital
nature of modern maps to investigate the patterns and relationships within and
among mapped data. This topic uses a
series of examples to introduce the concept of a map-ematics
and the similarities/differences in
Spatial Analysis and Spatial
Statistics that form the two primary compartments of the map analysis
toolbox.
Topic
3 Basic Techniques in Spatial
Analysis —
Spatial Analysis investigates the
“spatial context” of mapped data resulting from the relative positioning and
coincidence of the map values. This
topic discusses the Reclassify and Overlay grouping of operators that form
the basic techniques used in most spatial models.
Topic
4 Calculating Effective Distance — Traditional “as the crow flies”
distance measured with a ruler is rarely an effective in establishing
separation between two points as the reality of intervening barriers play a
significant role that bends and twists actual movement. This topic discusses the advanced Distance Measurement grouping of
operators and expands the concept of simple distance to effective proximity
considering relative and absolute barriers to movement.
Topic
5 Calculating Visual Exposure — Visual analysis is an extension of
effective distance measurement that considers line-of-sight connectivity among
map locations. This topic discusses the
procedures, considerations and applications of derived viewshed and visual
exposure maps.
Topic
6 Summarizing Neighbors — Values surrounding a location can be
used to investigate localized variation, anomalies, and trends in mapped
data. This topic discusses the advanced
Neighbors grouping of operators that characterize map values occurring within a
roving window centered at a location by either the surface configuration
implied or a simple statistical summary.
Topic
7 Basic Spatial Modeling Approaches — Spatial Modeling involves “thinking
with maps” to solve a problem by deriving a solution map through a logical
series of map analysis operations applied to base maps in a manner analogous to
a cooking recipe. This topic describes a
progression of models that demonstrate the procedures and considerations in
deriving areas of suitable wildlife habitat.
Topic
8 Spatial Modeling Example — Successful spatial models require the integration human
judgment and analytical processing. This
topic describes the spatial reasoning and processing considerations surrounding
a routing model that considers preferences for a variety of map criteria in determining
the best path and optimal corridor for a proposed power line.
Topic
9 Basis Techniques in Spatial
Statistics — Spatial Statistics utilizes information about the spatial arrangement inherent
in a data set to help explain variation and is based on the assumption that
“nearby things are more alike than distant things.” This topic focuses on surface modeling
techniques used to generate and evaluate the geographic distribution implied by
a set of discrete point samples.
Topic
10 Spatial Data Mining — Spatial Data Mining investigates the relationships within
and among mapped data to characterize, compare, segment and map-ematically
model spatial dependency. This topic
focuses on basic techniques for comparing maps, assessing similarity and
clustering as means to understand and utilize spatial relationships in
decision-making.
Epilog
T he Many Faces of GIS — GIS in general and map analysis in particular is radically
changing how we perceive and utilize maps.
This topic discusses different GIS adoption paths, their driving factors
and impacts on the current and future dynamics within the GIS community.
Beyond Mapping
Compilation Series
_______________________________________
Beyond Mapping Compilation Series
(Book II)
Spatial Reasoning for Effective GIS
Solutions
|
This compilation explores the
basic concepts of map analysis and discusses the fundamental elements of GIS that
make it different from traditional map structure, content, processing and
use. It is an
invitation to consider the expanded capabilities of GIS and relate them to
current operations thereby fostering an appreciation of GIS as an effective
analytical tool in solving many complex spatial issues. GIS is a new technology, and as such it
presents new opportunities as well as new pitfalls. This
book engages the reader (both specialist and general user) through
incisive and relaxed discussion that investigates why GIS technology is “as
different from as it is similar” to traditional map processing. We are
at the threshold of a new era— one that directly incorporates the complexity
of geographic space in decision-making instead of simply applying a single
solution throughout an entire area.
The step isn’t so much rocket science as it is a new approach to
problem solving. Sure, there are new
and initially confusing tools, but the real challenge is in “thinking
spatially.” |
_________________________________________________________________________
This online electronic book and print-ready version is
posted at…
http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/BeyondMappingSeries/BeyondMapping_II/
…permission to use all materials for educational purposes is
granted.
________________________________________________
Book II —
Table of Contents
Introduction Where is GIS? — Is the
Topic
1 Understanding
Topic
2 From Field Samples to Mapped Data — In the simplest sense,
statistics are merely a collection of numbers. Traditional statistical
analysis characterizes the "typical response" in a data set; whereas
spatial statistics seek to map the data’s distribution in geographic
space. This section compares the two approaches and investigates various
techniques of spatial interpolation.
Topic
3 Implementing
Topic
4 Toward and Honest
Topic
5 A Framework for
Topic
6 Alternative Data Structures — At the heart of
Topic
7 Organizing the Map Analysis
Toolbox —
What
Topic
8 The Anatomy of a
Topic
9 Putting
Topic
10 A Futuristic
Epilog The Human Factor in GIS Technology —
Beyond Mapping
Compilation Series
_______________________________________
Beyond Mapping Compilation Series
(Book I)
Beyond Mapping:
Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS
|
In this compilation, Berry
explores the concepts of geographic information systems ( However,
the current user community tends to define GIS in comfortable terms of
computer mapping and spatial database management. While these basic activities are the
cornerstones of GIS and automate our historic map analysis procedures, this
"paper map” perspective severely limits the full potential of this new
digital map technology. This
emerging technology goes beyond traditional mapping and spatial database
management to new concepts and procedures for modeling the complex
interrelations among spatial data of all kinds. This
book is designed so the general user can read about broad issues and then
delve into more detail, even to the algorithm level. Berry’s witty writing style is sure to
inform as it entertains both the GIS professional as well as the novice who
is beginning a journey in this new technology. |
_________________________________________________________________________
This online electronic book and print-ready version is
posted at…
http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/BeyondMappingSeries/BeyondMapping_I/
…permission to use all materials for educational purposes is
granted.
__________________________________________________
Book I —
Table of Contents
Introduction Overview of Basic Terminology — There are some
similarities, but many differences, between traditional and
Topic 1 Maps As Data and Data Structure Implications — The full impact of
numerical representation of spatial data in
Topic 2 Measuring Effective Distance and Connectivity
—
Before
Topic 3 Roving Windows: Assessment of Neighborhood
Characteristics — Information
surrounding a point often provides insight into spatial problem solving. Neighborhood summaries can be derived from
surface configuration to produce slope, aspect and profile maps. Or, the summaries can relate to the context
of the neighborhood for such procedures as spatial interpolation, smoothing,
and diversity analysis. More than any other classes of operations,
“roving windows” provide entirely new applications for map analysis.
Topic 4 What
Topic 5 Assessing Variability, Shape, and Pattern of
Map Features —
The shape and pattern of
landscape features are readily apparent to the eye but historically difficult
to quantify. This section describes
several indices used in characterizing the configuration and arrangement of
features.
Topic 6 Overlaying Maps and Characterizing Error
Propagation —
Overlaying maps is at the heart
of most
Topic 7 Overlaying Maps and Summarizing the Results — In
Topic 8 Scoping
Topic 9 Slope, Distance and Connectivity: Their
Algorithms —
At first encounter, many
of the advanced
Topic 10 Cartographic and Spatial Modeling — Many
Epilog The Evolution and Current Expression of GIS — We have been creating
and using mapped for thousands of years. This section looks at
Beyond Mapping
Compilation Series
_______________________________________
Permission to use portions of the Beyond
Mapping Compilation Series collection of columns for educational
and non-commercial
purposes is granted provided reference is made to the author and the URL
of the Beyond Mapping
Compilation Series Topic of the online book containing the materials—
For example… Figure is from Berry, Beyond Mapping
Compilation Series, Book I, Topic 4 “What GIS Is and Isn’t”
posted
at: www.innovativegis.com/Basis/BeyondMappingSeries/